class Proc

A Proc object is an encapsulation of a block of code, which can be stored in a local variable, passed to a method or another Proc, and can be called. Proc is an essential concept in Ruby and a core of its functional programming features.

square = Proc.new {|x| x**2 }

square.call(3)  #=> 9
# shorthands:
square.(3)      #=> 9
square[3]       #=> 9

Proc objects are closures, meaning they remember and can use the entire context in which they were created.

def gen_times(factor)
  Proc.new {|n| n*factor } # remembers the value of factor at the moment of creation
end

times3 = gen_times(3)
times5 = gen_times(5)

times3.call(12)               #=> 36
times5.call(5)                #=> 25
times3.call(times5.call(4))   #=> 60

Creation¶ ↑

There are several methods to create a Proc

Use the Proc class constructor:
```
proc1 = Proc.new {|x| x**2 }
```
Use the Kernel#proc method as a shorthand of Proc.new:
```
proc2 = proc {|x| x**2 }
```

Receiving a block of code into proc argument (note the &):

def make_proc(&block)
  block
end

proc3 = make_proc {|x| x**2 }

Construct a proc with lambda semantics using the Kernel#lambda method (see below for explanations about lambdas):
```
lambda1 = lambda {|x| x**2 }
```
Use the Lambda literal syntax (also constructs a proc with lambda semantics):
```
lambda2 = ->(x) { x**2 }
```

Lambda and non-lambda semantics¶ ↑

Procs are coming in two flavors: lambda and non-lambda (regular procs). Differences are:

In lambdas, return and break means exit from this lambda;
In non-lambda procs, return means exit from embracing method (and will throw LocalJumpError if invoked outside the method);
In non-lambda procs, break means exit from the method which the block given for. (and will throw LocalJumpError if invoked after the method returns);
In lambdas, arguments are treated in the same way as in methods: strict, with ArgumentError for mismatching argument number, and no additional argument processing;
Regular procs accept arguments more generously: missing arguments are filled with nil, single Array arguments are deconstructed if the proc has multiple arguments, and there is no error raised on extra arguments.

Examples:

# +return+ in non-lambda proc, +b+, exits +m2+.
# (The block +{ return }+ is given for +m1+ and embraced by +m2+.)
$a = []; def m1(&b) b.call; $a << :m1 end; def m2() m1 { return }; $a << :m2 end; m2; p $a
#=> []

# +break+ in non-lambda proc, +b+, exits +m1+.
# (The block +{ break }+ is given for +m1+ and embraced by +m2+.)
$a = []; def m1(&b) b.call; $a << :m1 end; def m2() m1 { break }; $a << :m2 end; m2; p $a
#=> [:m2]

# +next+ in non-lambda proc, +b+, exits the block.
# (The block +{ next }+ is given for +m1+ and embraced by +m2+.)
$a = []; def m1(&b) b.call; $a << :m1 end; def m2() m1 { next }; $a << :m2 end; m2; p $a
#=> [:m1, :m2]

# Using +proc+ method changes the behavior as follows because
# The block is given for +proc+ method and embraced by +m2+.
$a = []; def m1(&b) b.call; $a << :m1 end; def m2() m1(&proc { return }); $a << :m2 end; m2; p $a
#=> []
$a = []; def m1(&b) b.call; $a << :m1 end; def m2() m1(&proc { break }); $a << :m2 end; m2; p $a
# break from proc-closure (LocalJumpError)
$a = []; def m1(&b) b.call; $a << :m1 end; def m2() m1(&proc { next }); $a << :m2 end; m2; p $a
#=> [:m1, :m2]

# +return+, +break+ and +next+ in the stubby lambda exits the block.
# (+lambda+ method behaves same.)
# (The block is given for stubby lambda syntax and embraced by +m2+.)
$a = []; def m1(&b) b.call; $a << :m1 end; def m2() m1(&-> { return }); $a << :m2 end; m2; p $a
#=> [:m1, :m2]
$a = []; def m1(&b) b.call; $a << :m1 end; def m2() m1(&-> { break }); $a << :m2 end; m2; p $a
#=> [:m1, :m2]
$a = []; def m1(&b) b.call; $a << :m1 end; def m2() m1(&-> { next }); $a << :m2 end; m2; p $a
#=> [:m1, :m2]

p = proc {|x, y| "x=#{x}, y=#{y}" }
p.call(1, 2)      #=> "x=1, y=2"
p.call([1, 2])    #=> "x=1, y=2", array deconstructed
p.call(1, 2, 8)   #=> "x=1, y=2", extra argument discarded
p.call(1)         #=> "x=1, y=", nil substituted instead of error

l = lambda {|x, y| "x=#{x}, y=#{y}" }
l.call(1, 2)      #=> "x=1, y=2"
l.call([1, 2])    # ArgumentError: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)
l.call(1, 2, 8)   # ArgumentError: wrong number of arguments (given 3, expected 2)
l.call(1)         # ArgumentError: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)

def test_return
  -> { return 3 }.call      # just returns from lambda into method body
  proc { return 4 }.call    # returns from method
  return 5
end

test_return # => 4, return from proc

Lambdas are useful as self-sufficient functions, in particular useful as arguments to higher-order functions, behaving exactly like Ruby methods.

Procs are useful for implementing iterators:

def test
  [[1, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6]].map {|a, b| return a if a + b > 10 }
                            #  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
end

Inside map, the block of code is treated as a regular (non-lambda) proc, which means that the internal arrays will be deconstructed to pairs of arguments, and return will exit from the method test. That would not be possible with a stricter lambda.

You can tell a lambda from a regular proc by using the lambda? instance method.

Lambda semantics is typically preserved during the proc lifetime, including &-deconstruction to a block of code:

p = proc {|x, y| x }
l = lambda {|x, y| x }
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